Yeats as a modern poet

 Yeats as a modern poet

William Butler Yeats was one of the modern poets, who influenced his contemporaries as well as successors. By nature he was a dreamer, a thinker, who fell under the spell of the folk-lore and the superstitions of the Irish peasantry. He felt himself a stranger in the world of technology and rationalism. He is a prominent poet in modern times for his sense of moral wholeness of humanity and history.

Yeats was a realistic poet though his early poetry was not realistic. His later poems, despite realistic accent, are not free from magic and the mysterious world. The First World War and the Irish turmoil gave Yeats a more realistic track. This can clearly be seen in his poem, “Second Coming”, when he says;

The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.

Obscurity in Yeats’ poetry is due to his occultism, mysticism, Irish mythology, use of symbolism and theory of ‘Mask’. Yeats was keen to replace traditional Greek and Roman mythological figures with figures from Irish folk lore which results in obscurity. The juxtaposition of the past and the present, the spiritual and the physical, and many such dissimilar concepts and his condensed rich language make his poetry obscure.

Like Eliot, Yeats’ poetry is marked with pessimism. After his disappointment with Maud Gonne and his disenchantment with the Irish National Movement, Yeats started writing bitter and pessimistic poems. But he tried to dispel this feeling by philosophizing in his poems. “To A Shade”, “When Helen Lived”, and two Byzantium poems along with many more of his poems reflect this mood.

And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?

Yeats’ mysticism is also a modern trait. Although modern age is scientific, yet modern poetry has traces of mysticism in it. Yeats is the only modern poet who initiated occult system and mysticism in his poetry. Mysticism runs throughout his poetry in which the gods and fairies of the Celtic mythology live again. To Yeats, a poet is very close to a mystic and poet’s mystical experience give to the poem a spiritual world. The state of spiritual exaltation is described in “Sailing to Byzantium”:

-----------------------, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing,

Yeats believed in magic as he was anti-rationalist. By ‘Magic’ Yeats meant the whole area of occult knowledge. Occult was very much common in modern poetry for numerology was lately been introduced in 19th century. Most of his symbols have a touch of the supernatural about them. Number 14 is his typical occult number which symbolizes decline. In “The Wild Swans at Coole”, he says:

Upon the brimming water among the stones
Are nine-and-fifty swans.

Being disillusioned by lack of harmony and strength in modern culture, Yeats tried to revive the ancient spells and chant to bring unity and a spirit of integration in modern civilization torn by conflicts and dissensions. Modern man was a disillusioned due to mechanism. All the romances were coming to an end and people were getting brutal. In “Easter 1916” he highlights the disillusionment of modern man. He says:

What is it but nightfall?

Yeats was an anti-war poet and does not admire war fought under any pretext. In his last years, he wrote poems dealing with the crumbling of modern civilization due of war. He believed that a revolutionary change is in the offing. In “The Second Coming” he describes what lies at the root of the malady;

Things fall apart; the entire cannot hold ….
The best lack all conviction, while the worst

Humanism is another modern trait in literature. The threat of war cast a gloomy shadow on the poetic sensibility of the modern poets. The sad realities of life paved the way of humanitarian aspect in modern literature. Yeats’ poetry also abounds in humanism. In “Easter 1916”, he feels even for his rival. He says:

He had done most bitter wrong
To some who are near my heart,

Yeats believed that much chaos has entered in Christianity as it has lost its effect and now it is about to end. The good people sadly lack conviction, while the bad pursue their wicked ends with passionate intensity. The second coming is at hand. This coming prophet will be the prophet of destruction. The falcon, symbolizing intellectual power, has got free of the control of the falconer, representing the heart or soul.

Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;

Yeats’ later poetry is typified by a stark, naked brutality and bluntness. His poems present the truth about the human state and he does not hesitate to use blunt and brutal terms to express it. He called spade a spade. He calls the world “the frog-spawn of a blind man’s ditch”. He says that a man is:

All mere complexities,
The fury and the mire of human veins.

Yeats’ use of symbols in poetry is complex and rich. He was the chief representative of the Symbolist Movement. He draws his symbols from Irish folklore and mythology, philosophy, metaphysics, occult, magic, paintings and drawings. Several allusions are compressed into a single symbol. His symbols are all pervasive key symbols. His key-symbols shed light on his previous poems and “illuminates their sense”. ‘The Rose’, ‘Swan’ and ‘Helen’ are his key-symbols. Symbols give ‘dumb things voices, and bodiless things bodies’ in Yeats’ poetry.

One of Yeats’ concerns was old age which is seen as a symbol of the tyranny of time. Rage against the limitations of age and society upon an old man occurs frequently in his poetry. In “Among School Children” he considers himself a comfortable scarecrow. The heart becomes ‘comprehending’, unfortunately attached to a ‘dying animal’. In “The Tower”, Yeats calls the aged body an ‘absurdity’. A powerful expression of Yeats’ agony facing old age appears at the beginning of “Sailing to Byzantium”:

That is no country for old men. The young
In one another’s arms, birds in the tress
Those dying generations – at their song.

Yeats attitude to old age cannot be typified. Old age is certainly a handicap to the still strong sensual desires. He talks of the limited choices available to an old man who is simply a torn coat upon a stick:

An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, ----

He was both romantic and modern and so talks about balance. In the age of industrialization, man was losing the equilibrium between science and religion. They were destroying their physical beauty by injuring it for the elevation of soul. The balance was lost.

O body swayed to music, O brightening glance,
How can we know the dancer from the dance?

Eliot was contemporary and had a great influence on Yeats. Both have certain things in common. Both are intensely aware of man in history and of the soul in eternity. Both at times see history as an image of the soul writ large. Both see an uncongenial world disintegrating and an unknowable future taking shape in the surrounding dark. Both call in eternity to redress the balance of time.

Yeats is a unique poet as he is a traditional and a modern poet at the same time. Though he started his poetic career as a Romantic and the Raphaelite, he very soon evolved into a genuine modern poet. All the romantic traits found in Yeats early poetry collapsed in his later poetry. Before coming in contact with the Imagist school, he was writing poems, common with the writings of the Imagist Movement. But Yeats symbolism is not derived from that movement. Thus, Yeats is a poet who is both traditional and modern.

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Comic Epic Poem In Prose: Joseph Andrews

Comic Epic Poem In Prose: Joseph Andrews

COMIC EPIC POEM IN PROSE

It is true that we can term "Joseph Andrews" as a 'comic epic poem in prose' because it has almost all the prerequisites that are important for labeling it as a 'comic epic poem in prose'.
Fielding himself termed it as a 'comic epic poem in prose' in the "Preface to Joseph Andrews". Fielding claimed that he was founding a new genre of writing but this was not entirely accurate. There was a long tradition of such writing before him, though it was not completely developed or established. According to Aristotle, Homer had produced a 'comic epic in verse' but again according to Aristotle verse is not the only criterion for poetry. Fielding has only combined the ideal of 'comic epic' and the 'prose epic' to produce what he termed as 'comic epic poem in prose'.
An epic is a story of "a conspicuous man who falls from prosperity to adversity because of his some error of judgment i.e. Hamartia. His death is, however, not essential. But his fall arises a sense of pity and fear in us". It also has heroic style and bombastic language. And a comic epic is just reverse to it in most of its prerequisites except a few.
A heroic epic has a conspicuous hero, grand theme, a continuous action, a journey to underworld, wars, digressions, discovery, high seriousness, a high moral lesson and bombastic diction in it and in "Joseph Andrews" there is an ordinary hero, a journey from one place to another place, mock-wars, digressions, discovery, humour, a high moral and a bombastic diction in it. So, it can be termed as a 'comic epic poem in prose'. We can also call "Joseph Andrews" as "The Odyssey on the road" because both the works, Homer's "Odyssey" and Fielding's "Joseph Andrew" in the first place involve a journey. Like Odysseus, Joseph Andrews after the displeasure of a lady, who is superior from him in position and power, sets out on his way home and meets with many misfortunes on the way by the lady who has fallen in love with him. So it would be fairly justified to call "Joseph Andrews" an "Odyssey on the road". Hence it is a 'comic epic poem in prose' as well.


Unlike a heroic epic, the hero of "Joseph Andrews" is an ordinary boy. He is a foot-man of Lady Booby who has fallen in love with him. But Joseph is very innocent and virtuous. Therefore, he leaves the service of the Lady and goes to meet his beloved Fanny. On the way he has to face many hardships.


Though the action of the novel is not as great as the action of an epic yet it is enough to term the novel a comic epic. Joseph sets out from London to Somersetshire to see Fanny. On the way, Joseph crosses many roads, highways, country sides, stays at many inns and meets many people; all this constitute a big action.


Through the journey of Joseph, Fielding satirizes the society of the day and ridicules them. The corrupt and hypocritical clergy, Parson Trilluber and Parson Barnabas, individual like Lady Booby and Mrs. Slipslop, the Squire of Fools and the Squire of False Promises have been satirized.
The element of wars is very important in an epic and it is no exception in "Joseph Andrews". We see a war took place in an inn where Joseph was insulted by the host. Parson Adams was annoyed and challenged the host. There started the first war between both the parties. Soon Mrs. Slipslop and landlady also joined in the battle. There are many other epical elements in the novel to call it a comic epic.
Another epic convention is the use of digression. There are two major digressions in "Joseph Andrews". There are, seemingly, irrelevant stories of Leonara and Mr. Wilson. Epic writers considered them as embellishments. Fielding, however, makes the interpolations thematically relevant. For, these are not irrelevant in reality.


The formula of discovery, as described by Aristotle, an essential element of an epic, has also been used by Fielding. In the end of the novel, we see that Joseph is recognized to be Mr. Wilson's child and Fanny as the sister of virtuous Pamela.


High seriousness is an important element in epic. But in "Joseph Andrews" there is a great deal of comedy and humour, because it is a comic epic novel. But behind this comedy, there lies a serious purpose of reformation. We have a gamut of vain and hypocritical characters in Parson Trilluber, Parson Barnabas, passengers in the stage-coach, Mr. Tow-wouse, Mrs. Slipslop, Peter Pounce and the various Squires. The surgeon and the lawyer and the magistrate are also some other example of hypocrisy and vanity. Each of these characters provides a great deal of humour and amusement under a serious purpose.

Every epic has a moral lesson in it and this is no exception with a comic epic. Fielding's views on morality are practical, full of common sense and tolerance, liberal, flexible and more realistic. These are devoid of prudish and rigid codes. Fielding wanted to tear the veil of vanity and hypocrisy.


The use of grand, bombastic and elevated language is an important element in an epic. It has heroic diction. But in "Joseph Andres" we see that Fielding has used prose for poetry because it brings us close to the real and actual life and it is much more suitable for Fielding's purpose of dealing with human nature. However, his use of prose is very good, up to the mark and apt for his novel.

So, we can conclude that the theory of the 'comic epic poem in prose' as described by Fielding in the preface of "Joseph Andrews" manifests itself in the novel. Fielding has assimilate the rules and adapted them to his way of writing so well that we are not consciously aware of the formal principles which give unity to his materials. According to Thornbury, "Joseph Andrews" by Fielding is:

"An art which conceals art, but is the art of a conscious artist."

It is true that in "Joseph Andrews", the scale is not as large as one can except in an epic, though it has all other elements of a 'comic epic poem in prose', as claimed by Fielding.

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Humour in Joseph Andrews

Humour in Joseph Andrews

Fielding's proclaimed aim was to tear the veil off affectation and expose it to ridicule, which is the true source of laughter. Humour, naturally, occupies an important place in Fielding's concept of novel. Satire has an equally important role, for it has to strip the mask off the ills of society, holds up a mirror to human folly and corrects human beings of their vanities and hypocrisy.


In his Preface to "Joseph Andrews", Fielding concludes that affectation is the source of the ridiculous, springing from vanity or hypocrisy. Fielding intends to laugh mankind out of its follies and foibles. Fielding, thus, employs ironical and satirical humour in several places. But he does not confine himself to these two varieties. Essentially a comic genius, he often indulges in other forms of humour, among which pure fun is very common.


Joseph Andrews has a large variety of humour. Farce is not excluded. Several farcical situations such as the fight scene at the inn, Joseph falling from his horse and hurting his knee, Joseph sitting by the fireside while the hostess of the inn rubbing his knee, Parson Adams in a pan of hog's blood, the hounds of the Squire tearing at Parson Adams' cassock, Mrs. tow-wouse discovering Betty in Tow-wouse's bed, the bed-room scene in Booby Hall, Didapper mistaking the room and entering Mrs. Slipslop's room and Adams mistaking Didapper for the distressed lady and getting hold of Mrs. Slipslop as the attacker, punching her mercilessly till Lady Booby arrives on the scene with a lighted-candle. Adam's taking a wrong turn in Fanny's bed and goes to sleep; all these scenes are farcical.


We cannot dismiss the farcical scenes as a rough and 'low' kind of fun, but they embody a serious purpose. Fielding does not really forget that he was writing to 'laugh mankind' out of folly. But his satire is mild and amusing. The irony is, similarly, not devastating but gentle.


The patriot blanches in fear and trembles. He turns tail and runs away – a surprising reaction from a man who declares that all cowards should be hanged. Even Adams himself is not spared of ironical humour. His advice to Joseph on acceptance of misfortune is thrown to the winds when his own son is reported to be drowned. His desire to read to Mr. Wilson a sermon on vanity is riddled with irony. He is vain enough to consider his sermon a masterpiece. There are, of course, sharp touches of irony in Mrs. Slipslop's portraiture and Lady Booby's affectation.


Satire and irony mingle in the portraiture of Pamela. She is a priggish hypocrite. Indeed, Fielding does not leave an opportunity to satirize Richardson's Pamela.


Fielding develops the satirical theme most effectively in the scene where each of the coach passengers is stripped spiritually naked in their confrontation with naked Joseph.The lady's false delicacy, the old gentleman's selfishness and the lawyer's professional cautiousness, are all exposed. But the poor postilion swears and declares that he would rather go in a shirt than leave a naked man to die. The crowning irony is that the poor postilion who showed his human feelings was later transported for stealing a hen-roost.

The society of the day comes in for plenty of ridicule by Fielding. The corrupt and hypocritical clergy, similarly, comes in for attack. But through particular examples, through the individuals like Lady Booby, Mrs. Slipslop, Trilluber, Barnabas, the Squire of Fools and the Squire of False Promises, general human follies and foibles are satirized.

Joseph Andrews abounds in humorous characterization. The most remarkable figure Parson Adams is eccentric, forgetful, gullible, idealistic but entirely human. He is indulged in odd gestures and mannerism. Adams never loses his dignity, however much of humour is involved in his portraiture – that speaks of Fielding's skill as a comic artist.

Mrs. Slipslop is another entirely humorous character. She is almost disgusting in her short stature and bearded face, with small eyes and a long nose. She affects long words wrong under the impression that she seems very learned.

Parson Trulliber is another comic creation. Rearing pigs and being with them continuously has made him appear increasingly like a pig.

In Joseph Andrews there is plenty of burlesque in diction. The mock-heroic technique produces plenty of humour in the novel. The discrepancy between the high style and the ridiculous situation produces laughter.

Fielding was basically a comic artist, master of the various forms of humour – farce, satire, irony, humorous characterization, and the comic style. Joseph Andrews manifests these various forms of humour. Fielding's comic vision is based on a genial acceptance of human folly, which he endeavours to correct. Fielding's humane viewpoint makes him broadminded and realistic. Fielding's humour "shines like a sun on the evil and the good".

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Joseph Andrews: Comic Epic Poem in Prose

Joseph Andrews: Comic Epic Poem in Prose

It is true that we can term "Joseph Andrews" as a 'comic epic poem in prose' because it has almost all the prerequisites that are important for labeling it as a 'comic epic poem in prose'.

Fielding himself termed it as a 'comic epic poem in prose' in the "Preface to Joseph Andrews". Fielding claimed that he was founding a new genre of writing but this was not entirely accurate. There was a long tradition of such writing before him, though it was not completely developed or established. According to Aristotle, Homer had produced a 'comic epic in verse' but again according to Aristotle verse is not the only criterion for poetry. Fielding has only combined the ideal of 'comic epic' and the 'prose epic' to produce what he termed as 'comic epic poem in prose'.


An epic is a story of "a conspicuous man who falls from prosperity to adversity because of his some error of judgment i.e. Hamartia. His death is, however, not essential. But his fall arises a sense of pity and fear in us". It also has heroic style and bombastic language. And a comic epic is just reverse to it in most of its prerequisites except a few.


A heroic epic has a conspicuous hero, grand theme, a continuous action, a journey to underworld, wars, digressions, discovery, high seriousness, a high moral lesson and bombastic diction in it and in "Joseph Andrews" there is an ordinary hero, a journey from one place to another place, mock-wars, digressions, discovery, humour, a high moral and a bombastic diction in it. So, it can be termed as a 'comic epic poem in prose'. We can also call "Joseph Andrews" as "The Odyssey on the road" because both the works, Homer's "Odyssey" and Fielding's "Joseph Andrew" in the first place involve a journey. Like Odysseus, Joseph Andrews after the displeasure of a lady, who is superior from him in position and power, sets out on his way home and meets with many misfortunes on the way by the lady who has fallen in love with him. So it would be fairly justified to call "Joseph Andrews" an "Odyssey on the road". Hence it is a 'comic epic poem in prose' as well.


Unlike a heroic epic, the hero of "Joseph Andrews" is an ordinary boy. He is a foot-man of Lady Booby who has fallen in love with him. But Joseph is very innocent and virtuous. Therefore, he leaves the service of the Lady and goes to meet his beloved Fanny. On the way he has to face many hardships.


Though the action of the novel is not as great as the action of an epic yet it is enough to term the novel a comic epic. Joseph sets out from London to Somersetshire to see Fanny. On the way, Joseph crosses many roads, highways, country sides, stays at many inns and meets many people; all this constitute a big action.


Through the journey of Joseph, Fielding satirizes the society of the day and ridicules them. The corrupt and hypocritical clergy, Parson Trilluber and Parson Barnabas, individual like Lady Booby and Mrs. Slipslop, the Squire of Fools and the Squire of False Promises have been satirized.


The element of wars is very important in an epic and it is no exception in "Joseph Andrews". We see a war took place in an inn where Joseph was insulted by the host. Parson Adams was annoyed and challenged the host. There started the first war between both the parties. Soon Mrs. Slipslop and landlady also joined in the battle. There are many other epical elements in the novel to call it a comic epic.

Another epic convention is the use of digression. There are two major digressions in "Joseph Andrews". There are, seemingly, irrelevant stories of Leonara and Mr. Wilson. Epic writers considered them as embellishments. Fielding, however, makes the interpolations thematically relevant. For, these are not irrelevant in reality.

The formula of discovery, as described by Aristotle, an essential element of an epic, has also been used by Fielding. In the end of the novel, we see that Joseph is recognized to be Mr. Wilson's child and Fanny as the sister of virtuous Pamela.

High seriousness is an important element in epic. But in "Joseph Andrews" there is a great deal of comedy and humour, because it is a comic epic novel. But behind this comedy, there lies a serious purpose of reformation. We have a gamut of vain and hypocritical characters in Parson Trilluber, Parson Barnabas, passengers in the stage-coach, Mr. Tow-wouse, Mrs. Slipslop, Peter Pounce and the various Squires. The surgeon and the lawyer and the magistrate are also some other example of hypocrisy and vanity. Each of these characters provides a great deal of humour and amusement under a serious purpose.

Every epic has a moral lesson in it and this is no exception with a comic epic. Fielding's views on morality are practical, full of common sense and tolerance, liberal, flexible and more realistic. These are devoid of prudish and rigid codes. Fielding wanted to tear the veil of vanity and hypocrisy.

The use of grand, bombastic and elevated language is an important element in an epic. It has heroic diction. But in "Joseph Andres" we see that Fielding has used prose for poetry because it brings us close to the real and actual life and it is much more suitable for Fielding's purpose of dealing with human nature. However, his use of prose is very good, up to the mark and apt for his novel.

So, we can conclude that the theory of the 'comic epic poem in prose' as described by Fielding in the preface of "Joseph Andrews" manifests itself in the novel. Fielding has assimilate the rules and adapted them to his way of writing so well that we are not consciously aware of the formal principles which give unity to his materials. According to Thornbury, "Joseph Andrews" by Fielding is:

"An art which conceals art, but is the art of a conscious artist."

It is true that in "Joseph Andrews", the scale is not as large as one can except in an epic, though it has all other elements of a 'comic epic poem in prose', as claimed by Fielding.

Read more »

Joseph Andrews: Comic Epic Poem in Prose

Joseph Andrews: Comic Epic Poem in Prose

It is true that we can term "Joseph Andrews" as a 'comic epic poem in prose' because it has almost all the prerequisites that are important for labeling it as a 'comic epic poem in prose'.


Fielding himself termed it as a 'comic epic poem in prose' in the "Preface to Joseph Andrews". Fielding claimed that he was founding a new genre of writing but this was not entirely accurate. There was a long tradition of such writing before him, though it was not completely developed or established. According to Aristotle, Homer had produced a 'comic epic in verse' but again according to Aristotle verse is not the only criterion for poetry. Fielding has only combined the ideal of 'comic epic' and the 'prose epic' to produce what he termed as 'comic epic poem in prose'.


An epic is a story of "a conspicuous man who falls from prosperity to adversity because of his some error of judgment i.e. Hamartia. His death is, however, not essential. But his fall arises a sense of pity and fear in us". It also has heroic style and bombastic language. And a comic epic is just reverse to it in most of its prerequisites except a few.


A heroic epic has a conspicuous hero, grand theme, a continuous action, a journey to underworld, wars, digressions, discovery, high seriousness, a high moral lesson and bombastic diction in it and in "Joseph Andrews" there is an ordinary hero, a journey from one place to another place, mock-wars, digressions, discovery, humour, a high moral and a bombastic diction in it. So, it can be termed as a 'comic epic poem in prose'. We can also call "Joseph Andrews" as "The Odyssey on the road" because both the works, Homer's "Odyssey" and Fielding's "Joseph Andrew" in the first place involve a journey. Like Odysseus, Joseph Andrews after the displeasure of a lady, who is superior from him in position and power, sets out on his way home and meets with many misfortunes on the way by the lady who has fallen in love with him. So it would be fairly justified to call "Joseph Andrews" an "Odyssey on the road". Hence it is a 'comic epic poem in prose' as well.


Unlike a heroic epic, the hero of "Joseph Andrews" is an ordinary boy. He is a foot-man of Lady Booby who has fallen in love with him. But Joseph is very innocent and virtuous. Therefore, he leaves the service of the Lady and goes to meet his beloved Fanny. On the way he has to face many hardships.


Though the action of the novel is not as great as the action of an epic yet it is enough to term the novel a comic epic. Joseph sets out from London to Somersetshire to see Fanny. On the way, Joseph crosses many roads, highways, country sides, stays at many inns and meets many people; all this constitute a big action.


Through the journey of Joseph, Fielding satirizes the society of the day and ridicules them. The corrupt and hypocritical clergy, Parson Trilluber and Parson Barnabas, individual like Lady Booby and Mrs. Slipslop, the Squire of Fools and the Squire of False Promises have been satirized.


The element of wars is very important in an epic and it is no exception in "Joseph Andrews". We see a war took place in an inn where Joseph was insulted by the host. Parson Adams was annoyed and challenged the host. There started the first war between both the parties. Soon Mrs. Slipslop and landlady also joined in the battle. There are many other epical elements in the novel to call it a comic epic.


Another epic convention is the use of digression. There are two major digressions in "Joseph Andrews". There are, seemingly, irrelevant stories of Leonara and Mr. Wilson. Epic writers considered them as embellishments. Fielding, however, makes the interpolations thematically relevant. For, these are not irrelevant in reality.


The formula of discovery, as described by Aristotle, an essential element of an epic, has also been used by Fielding. In the end of the novel, we see that Joseph is recognized to be Mr. Wilson's child and Fanny as the sister of virtuous Pamela.


High seriousness is an important element in epic. But in "Joseph Andrews" there is a great deal of comedy and humour, because it is a comic epic novel. But behind this comedy, there lies a serious purpose of reformation. We have a gamut of vain and hypocritical characters in Parson Trilluber, Parson Barnabas, passengers in the stage-coach, Mr. Tow-wouse, Mrs. Slipslop, Peter Pounce and the various Squires. The surgeon and the lawyer and the magistrate are also some other example of hypocrisy and vanity. Each of these characters provides a great deal of humour and amusement under a serious purpose.


Every epic has a moral lesson in it and this is no exception with a comic epic. Fielding's views on morality are practical, full of common sense and tolerance, liberal, flexible and more realistic. These are devoid of prudish and rigid codes. Fielding wanted to tear the veil of vanity and hypocrisy.


The use of grand, bombastic and elevated language is an important element in an epic. It has heroic diction. But in "Joseph Andres" we see that Fielding has used prose for poetry because it brings us close to the real and actual life and it is much more suitable for Fielding's purpose of dealing with human nature. However, his use of prose is very good, up to the mark and apt for his novel.


So, we can conclude that the theory of the 'comic epic poem in prose' as described by Fielding in the preface of "Joseph Andrews" manifests itself in the novel. Fielding has assimilate the rules and adapted them to his way of writing so well that we are not consciously aware of the formal principles which give unity to his materials. According to Thornbury, "Joseph Andrews" by Fielding is:

"An art which conceals art, but is the art of a conscious artist."

It is true that in "Joseph Andrews", the scale is not as large as one can except in an epic, though it has all other elements of a 'comic epic poem in prose', as claimed by Fielding.

Read more »

Morality in Joseph Andrews

Morality in Joseph Andrews

Henry Fielding undoubtedly holds moral views far-ahead of his times. Morality is an approval of adherence to principles that govern ethical and virtuous conduct.
Fielding was accused of being immoral in his novels. Dr. Johnson called his novels "vicious and corrupting". Richardson echoed the "charge of immorality" against him. Modern critics, however, has justified Fielding and gave him a credit of "an estimable ethical code". Strachey declared him a "deep, accurate, scientific moralist". Indeed neither "Joseph Andrews" nor "Tom Jones" strikes the modern sensibility as 'low' or 'immoral' either in purpose or in narration. Behind the truthful portrait of life, lies his broad moral vision. His writings are informed by an aim of correcting mankind with laughter.
"I have endeavored to laugh at mankind, out to their follies and vices."
His satire is prompted by the positive and healthy desire to reform. He not merely presents society, but also criticizes it.
Fielding reacted sharply against the code of ethics as incited by Richardson in "Pamela". He feels that Pamela's virtue is an affectation and a commodity, exchangeable for material prosperity. Virtue cannot and should not be to chastity alone. Mere external respectability is not morality. For Fielding:
"Chastity without goodness of heart is without value."
A truly virtuous man is disregardful of material benefits. He is devoid of an affectation which is necessary to avoid for becoming a virtuous man He finds:


"A delight in the happiness of mankind and a concern at their misery, with a desire, as much as possible, to procure the former and avert the latter …"


Fielding's moral vision is much wider that Richardson's. Morality is no longer equated with chastity or outward decorum. It is broad enough to include every aspect of human behaviour. Ones intentions, instincts, motives are equally important in judging a man.
Fielding aims to show human beings in various shades of vanity and hypocrisy and it is done ruthlessly and wittily in "Joseph Andrews". Hypocrisy is worse than vanity. Morality is concerned with inner truth according to Fielding. A person of affected behaviour is immoral than an unchaste woman. Fielding exposes the follies, hypocrisy, corruption, affectation and the vices of his so-called society.
The stage-coach passengers, the coachman, the lawyer, the lady, all are models of hypocrisy. Each refuses to place Joseph in the coach on various excuses exposing their inner lack of worth. "O Jesus", cry'd the lady, "A naked man! Dear coachman, drive on". A man motivated by selfishness rather than social duty "makes all haste possible". Only the poor postilion favours Joseph and gives him his warm coat. The journey undertaken by Joseph and Parson Adams reveals vanity or hypocrisy at every stage.
It is significant that Parson Adams jumps with joy at the reunion of Fanny and Joseph. It reflects an ability to sympathize with other's feelings. He can feel the joys and sorrows of others as keenly as he can feel his own. Simple, kind, generous and courageous, Adams is the epitome of true feeling and goodness of heart which is a vital aspect of Fielding's concept of morality. Adams impulses always prompt him to help anyone in distress. He saves Fanny's life two times.
"He is an innocent … so completely sincere in his beliefs and actions that he can't imagine insincerity in other; he takes everyone he meets at face-value."
Kindness achieved supreme importance in Fielding's moral code. A good and a moral man takes joy in helping others. Fielding says:
"I don't know a better definition of virtue, than it is a delight in doing good."
Fielding is as liberal in ridiculing affectation as he is hard on the lack of charity. Adams' definition:
"A generously disposition to receive the poor."
The simple test employed to man by Fielding to see check the capability of charity is to ask him for loan. When Parson Adams asks for some shillings to Parson Trulliber, he declares in frenzy:
"I know what charity is better than to give it to vagabonds".
This shows 18th century's clergy's degeneracy reluctant to give some shillings. The rich Parson Tulliber, Mrs. Tow-wouse, Lady Booby and Peter Pounce lacks natural kindness whereas the poor postilion, Betty and Pedler are true Christians, for they are ready to help other man in distress asking nothing in return. But Mrs. Tow-wouse is of opinion,
"A man should die on their hands without the money to pay his bills."


Fielding is against the prudish morality which considers sex as an unhealthy and dangerous for human life. He favours a healthy attitude towards sex. In his view, the restraint of natural impulses leads to unhealthy inhibition which is more immoral. Modern opinion is very close to him. But he does not approve of Lady Booby's desire for Joseph nor does he favour Mr. Slipslop's extreme whims. But Betty's desires spring from a natural heart and feeling. It is worth noticing that Betty is free of hypocrisy. She acts as ordered by her nature.


"She is good-natured generosity and composition."


Fielding's concept of religion is linked with his views on morality and is practical. He does not confine religion to going to church on Sundays only. He criticizes two sorts of ethics. One who thinks that virtue can exist without religion. In Mr. Wilson's story, they have no belief in Devine command. They are selfish and unable to resist immoral temptations. The other sort accepts religion but insists that faith is more important than good works. True religion encourages both faith and good deeds. Parson Adams is the best representative of his ideas.


Fielding's views on morality are practical, liberal, full of common sense and free from hypocrisy that the conventional morality preached by many of his contemporaries.. He does not believe in prudish or rigid codes. His concept of human nature is realistic, tolerant, broad and fairly flexible. Modern opinion has vindicated the moral vision of Fielding as healthy, wide and practical.

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Heart of Darkness: Theme of Isolation

Heart of Darkness: Theme of Isolation

"Heart of Darkness" has a multiplicity of themes interwoven closely and produces a unified pattern. The theme of isolation and its consequences constitute a theme in this book, though a minor one. Marlow and Mr. Kurtz illustrate this theme, dominate the novel and have symbolic roles. Both these men stand for much more than the individuals which they certainly are.


Marlow strikes us from the very start as a lonely figure. Although he is a member of a small group of people sitting on the deck of the streamer called the "Nellie". He is, at the very outset, differentiated from the others. He sits cross-legged in the pose of a Buddha preaching in European clothes without a lotus-flower. Then he begins his story, and nowhere in his narration does he appear to be feeing perfectly at home among other people. He seems to have the temperament of a man who would like to stay away from others, though he would certainly like to observe others and to mediate upon his observations.


When Marlow goes to Brussels for an interview, he depicts himself as an alien who has stepped into an unpleasant environment. The city of Brussels makes him think of a "whited sepulcher". This feeling clearly shows that he has nothing in common with the people of this European city, though he is himself a European. Then he finds something ominous in the atmosphere of the office of the Company. The two knitting-women strike him as mysterious and sinister beings.
"In the outer room the two women knitted black wool, feverishly."


Even the doctor tells him that he is the first Englishman to have come under his observation. Marlow says:
'The old doctor felt my pulse, evidently thinking of something else the while. "Good, good for there," he mumbled, and then with a certain eagerness asked me whether I would let him measure my head.




There seems to be a distance even between Marlow and his aunt who has got him the job. She is enthusiastic and cordial enough, but Marlow has his reservations. He thinks that she is a most unrealistic woman. She is under the impression that the white men go into the backward regions to confer benefits upon the savages. But, in Marlow's opinion, this view of the white men is entirely wrong.


When voyaging upon the sea in order to get to the Congo Marlow found himself to be perfectly idle and isolated from all the others on board the steamer because he had no point of contact with them. The sound of the sea-waves was the only source of comfort to him because these sounds seemed to be like "the speech of a brother". He finds a kinship with the sea-waves but no kinship with the human beings on board the steamer.


Marlow's sense of loneliness increase when he sees certain sights in the Congo. These sights convey to him the futility of the white man's exertions and activities in the Congo, and miseries of the black natives. His realization by him of white man's cruelty creates a kind of barrier between him and the white men living in Congo. When he has to deal with the individual white men, his isolation is further emphasized. He finds absolutely no point of contact with the manager of the Central Station, with the manager's uncle, and with the brick-maker. The manager is a man who inspires no fear, no love, no respect and there is "nothing within this man". The manager's uncle is an intriguer and plotter as the manager himself. The brick-maker is described by Marlow as a "papier-mâché Mephistopheles" and a devil who is hollow within. The only man, whom Marlow can respect, is the chief accountant who keeps his account-books in apple-pie order and is always seen dressed neatly and nicely; but perhaps Marlow is speaking here ironically. Actually none of the white men seems to have any merit in him. Marlow does discover some good points in the natives but none in the white men. The cannibal crew of his steamer shows an admirable self-restraint and are hard-working but the white agents seem to be useless fellows and to them he gives the nickname of the "faithless pilgrims". It is only when Marlow meets Mr. Kurtz that some sort of contact is established between him and the chief of the Inner Station of the Company.


The effect of isolation upon Marlow is profound. He is by nature somewhat unsociable. He is a kind of philosopher who meditates upon whatever he sees. Isolation further heightens his meditative faculty. Finding no point of contact with others, Marlow becomes more of a thinker, and more of a philosopher-cum-psychologist and studies the character and habits of Mr. Kurtz; and it is because of his isolation that he falls a victim to the influence of Mr. Kurtz whom he has himself described as a devil. This isolation can have grave consequences.


Mr. Kurtz is another isolated figure. He has become an absolutely solitary man after his prolonged stay in the Congo. He is not solitary in the sense that he does not mix with other. In fact, he has begun to identify himself with the savages and has become a sharer in their activities and in their interests. He participates in their "unspeakable rites" and he gratifies, without any restraint, his various lusts and his monstrous passions.
"The wilderness has caressed him, loved him, embraced him, entered his blood, consumed his flesh and has taken complete possession of his soul."


In the case of Mr. Kurtz, it is isolation which proves the man's undoing. Being cut off from all civilized society at the Inner Station of the Company, Mr. Kurtz begins slowly to fall under the influence of the savage till he becomes one of them. Gradually he acquires great power and begins to be regarded as a god by them. Thus now he has to keep himself at a distance even from them. He "presides" over their midnight dances which end with "unspeakable rites".


But he is a solitary figure in the context of his western education and European upbringing. Even among the savages, he stands far above them. The savages regard him as a man-god. Mr. Kurtz is indeed a deity for the savages, and therefore he is a solitary figure even among them. Perhaps the savage closest to him under these conditions is the native woman who is his housekeeper and also perhaps his mistress. But the evil within him has already acquired huge proportions. Thus the effects of isolation in Mr. Kurtz's case are disastrous.

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Realism in Jospeh Andrews

Realism in Jospeh Andrews

Realism means conceiving and representing the things as they are. The basic essence of human life is embodied in realistic literature. Besides it, we have also realistic picture of contemporary society. We, thus, have realism of particular order i.e. a true picture of society, manners, people and customs. We also have what we may call the "universal realism".
While it is true that Richardson and Defoe have some claim to have brought realism to English fiction, it is Fielding who can be called the real pioneer in realistic mode of novel writing. Fielding's realism is called "universal realism" as well as global. As Fielding says in the Preface to "Joseph Andrews":


"I believe I might aver that I have written little more than I have seen."
Fielding's novels present the fairly comprehensive picture of English society in eighteenth century. Though Fielding does not give us material about the environment of the people, yet their mental and moral characteristics are displayed with "power of realism". The landlords, landladies, doctors, lawyers, clergyman, postilions and coachmen – all go towards making the picture of society as comprehensive as possible. Dudden remarks that Fielding has provided,


"… a peculiarly vivid representation of the life and manners, the interest and pursuits of the people who lived in the country, or rather in the west country, which he knew so well – in the early Hanoverian times."
The eighteenth century society which appears on the pages of "Joseph Andrew" is not very pleasant picture. It is marked by an astounding callousness and selfishness. The insensitive hardness of such a society is brilliantly portrayed by stage-coach passengers who are reluctant to admit the naked wounded Joseph. The surgeon, who is summoned to look at Joseph's wounds at the inn, refuses to come out of his comfortable bed for a mere foot passenger. Parson Trulliber uses his Christian teachings to speak against beggars and refuses to lend Adam even a few shillings. We have also flashes of kindness amongst this all repressive inhumanity. Parson Adams, four postilions, the reformed Mr. Wilson, Betty the chambermaid and four peddlers are only one to act with generosity.


The society is divided into clear cut classes – the high and the low. The two classes may have dealings with one another in private, as Fielding tells us, but they scrupulously refuse to recognize each other in public. The rich regard themselves as the better and superior in every sense to the poor. Lady Booby does not dream of admitting Adams to her table, for she considers him to be badly dressed. Mrs. Slipslop does not deign to recognize a 'nobody' like Fanny at an inn. While Fielding exposes such behaviour to ridicule, we realize the hollow pretension of a society which indulged in so much of affectation.


The poor are not only disregarded but they are also the victim of the cruelty of rich. Lady Booby is least concerned about paying her servant's wages on time. Even the law which should help the poor in their misfortune is manipulated in the favour of rich. Lady Booby's instruction to Lawyer Scout shows the conspiracy of the rich against the poor.


The professional classes in general show a marked inefficiency and indifference. They do not take their work seriously. Parson Barnabas, Parson Trulliber, the rural magistrate, the Lawyer Scout – all is the illustration of the corrupt and selfish politicians of the day. Parson Adams is merely one good being against so many bad clergymen.


In his novel, Fielding has concentrated more on the countryside. But the little that he describes of town society is enough to give us its characteristics. The wealthy society of the town shows a high degree of degeneracy. The story of Mr. Wilson and Leonora as well as Joseph short stay in London provide us with the clear idea about the vulgarity, degeneration of morals, the vanity and hypocrisy which infested town society.


Fielding represents human nature as truthfully as he presents the society. His lawyers, as he himself says, have been alive for four thousand years and will continue to eternity. He was a man of wide experience in different areas of life. The portrait of society and human nature in "Joseph Andrews" is the consequence of his close and keen observation. He includes life in all variety and frankly presents the ugly as well as the beautiful.


Fielding does not present society realistically merely for entertainment. He has a moral purpose behind the realism. He wants to present reality so that the reader would observe it and correct themselves. To laugh making out of folly is his professed aim. He satirizes bad priests and bad lawyers so that people may learn to be better.
"I have endeavored to laugh at mankind, out to their follies and vices."
Fielding shows a broad tendency of realism in "Joseph Andrews". Social, psychological, individual as well as moral reality can be seen in the novel.
"As a painter of real life, he was equal to Hogarth; as a mere observer of human nature he was little inferior to Shakespeare."
He not merely presents society but also criticized it in order to make the world a better place to live in.

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Brutus as the Tragic Hero

Brutus as the Tragic Hero

According to Aristotle, “A tragic hero is a character who is not eminently good and just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice and depravity, but by some error or frailty…” The classic tragic hero has some type of tragic character flaw which creates an inner struggle, leads to his making a serious error in judgment, and leads to his eventual downfall and death.


In Julius Caesar Brutus displays the traits of a tragic hero through out this play. His tragic flaw is his being too naive. He makes an error in judgment, and when this error occurred it causes his own downfall. But Brutus causes his own downfall when after killing Caesar all of Rome turns against the conspirators. And all these events cause his death. However, the factors that have made him a tragic hero are discussed below:


The main reason that Marcus Brutus deserves the title of tragic hero is his noble personality. First of all, throughout the play, he never deceives anyone. Although he did murder Julius Caesar, it was for the good of Rome, not to deceive Caesar. Everything that he did was for the benefit of someone else. Even though he killed Antony's best friend, Antony still recognized Brutus as "the noblest Roman of them all." He does this in Act 5, Scene 5, after Brutus' death because Brutus the only conspirator that actually killed Caesar because he "loved Caesar less but loved Rome more." He cared more about others than he did himself. For instance, in the process of killing Caesar, he could have easily backed out because he knew he might have been punished, but he knew in the long run, that it would help the plebeians most. Another example of his selflessness is in Act 2, Scene 1. Brutus decides not to tell Portia his plans for the murder of Caesar. He feels she already has enough stress in her life and does not need to worry or deal with his plans.


Brutus also frequently demonstrated many acts of affection toward others. In Act 1, Scene 2, he is reluctant to join Cassius's conspiracy because he did not want to betray Caesar. He had to weigh his choices and in Act 3, Scene 2, Brutus kills Caesar only because he is afraid of what will happen to Rome if Caesar remains ruler. He knew the commoners’ life would be difficult with the ruling of Caesar. He realizes what a honorable man Caesar was. This is shown again in the same Act and Scene when Brutus allows Mark Antony to speak at Caesar's funeral even though Cassius highly disagreed. Brutus realized Caesar deserved a proper ceremony, and that the best way to do that would be to let Caesar's best friend speak. Finally he shows his endearment for others in Act 5, Scene 5. This is the scene in which Brutus kills himself partly because Cassius, his best friend, died.


All tragic heroes possess a character flaw that leads to their defeat. Brutus' tragic flaw was being naive. He thought that everything was good in the world, and that all men were honorable. He believed all that people told him and felt no one would lie or deceive him. Just because he did not betray anyone, he believed the world would return this act. This characteristic led him to his death. All that he trusted deceived him at one time or another during the play. He allows others, like Cassius and Antony to betray him. He is too trustful and does not realize what people are capable of doing to him after making them his friend. Due to this tragic flaw, a downfall of the character occurred soon after. The events that occurred because of Brutus' naiveness led to his downfall and death. His first mistake was in Act 2, Scene 1. This was when the fake letters are sent to him from the conspirators. This was all a lie, a trap, to get Brutus to join in on the conspirator for Cassius knew he could not do it without Brutus' support. Brutus believes these letters are from the people of Rome and agrees to the death of Caesar. Another example of this naiveness is in Act 3, Scene 2. Brutus decides to allow Antony to speak to show honor to Caesar. In the end, this decision ruins him. Antony riles the crowd into believing that the conspirators are all evil and they must get revenge. In result, a war breaks out. His last error, was not so much because of his naive trait, it was just pure desire in Act 5, Scene 2. This fault occurred when he starts the battle without telling Cassius about it. Brutus realizes it is the time to strike and knows that he must start the battle. There is no time to tell Cassius. This choice, in the end, was the main reason for his suicide. He kills himself because he realizes it is nobler to commit suicide than become captured and dragged through Rome.

Another characteristic is that the character has to have an epiphany or has to learn from his mistakes. This characteristic also fits Brutus. When Brutus and Cassius are planning to fight Caesar and Antony, they get into an argument and Brutus realizes that he cannot trust Cassius anymore.

With all of Brutus's characteristics, he is obviously the tragic hero of this play. Throughout this drama, he demonstrates the quality of honor many times. He is a noble man and I think Antony sums in up well in his last part in the play, which reads,

"This was the noblest Roman of them all.
All the conspirators save only he
Did that they did in envy of great Caesar;
He, only in general honest thought
And common good to all, made one of them.
His life was gentle, and the elements
So mixed in him that Nature might stand up
And say to all the world, "This was a man!"

In the end, Brutus is defeated because of his tragic flaw. Brutus was naive and did not realize the real ways of the people he trusted. Marcus Brutus is the real tragic hero of Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, and this title should not even be argued.

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Robert Frost: Poetic Qualities

 Robert Frost: Poetic Qualities

With the publication of “A Boy’s Will” (1913) and “North to Boston” (1914) Frost became the first American poet to be widely read.
Frost has been regarded as a “regional poet”. His region was New England of two best states in U.S.A. He never felt the slightest desire to include all America within the scope of his poetry. His regionalism resembles from Emily Dickinson’s. The New England provides him with the stories, attitudes, characters, which are appropriate to his needs. He falls in love with the New England tradition and it gives him strength. His work seems to capture the vanished joys of apple picking, hay-making, the sleep of an old man alone in an old farmhouse, the cleaning of the pasture spring. No American writer knows the subjects, people and places as thoroughly as Frost does. Frost is certainly a realist. He never says too much. In stories, he uses suggestion and understatement.

Frost is chiefly lyrical. The pomes are a spontaneous expression of the youthful heart. Frost shows emotion, imagery and song. As regards imagery, they are full of beauties of the darkness of late autumn, still depths of winter, and intensity of the swift summer. He has written lyrics light-hearted and humorous and philosophical. Often the two extremes are combines. He has written a few love lyrics too.

The form employed by Frost is dramatic. But in some of his most successful pieces he has subordinated both drama and character to straightforward poetic narrative. In “The Code” a farm hand tells how he killed the employer by burying him under a load of hay violating an unwritten law of the fields because of made some trivial sign on his work. Here Frost has sketched out, half-humorously a story showing peculiar local customs, the odd expressions of personal pride which develop in a remote rural community. In the “Witch of Coos” a humorously gruesome story of violence, brooding and hallucination appears what is probably the most unusual ghost in American literature. At once realistic and fantastic, cynically coarse and delicately beautiful, “Paul’s Wife” is an amazingly successful fusion of the most disparate qualities.
Frost showed a philosophical bent of mind from the very beginning. He does not have any philosophical system or set of beliefs. He inclines to the inquiring manner. Often he expresses himself in a humorous or satirical vein and shows an epigrammatic gift.

Sometimes we have a blend of the familiar essays and the parable in Frost’s philosophical poems with illustrative anecdotes. “Mending Walls” is a humorous portrayal through rural anecdote of the liberal, inquiring man confronted with the man of inertia. Then there are two poems of a different kind. “A Masque of Reason” and “A Masque of Mercy”, in which the poet undertakes, if not Milton’s task of justifying God’s ways to men at least the more modest task of speculating about them.

Many of Frost’s poems are capable of a symbolic interpretation. The surface meaning of “Mending Wall” is ‘Good fences make good neighbours’ but symbolically the poem states the serious problem of our times. Should national boundaries be made stronger for our protection or should they be removed since they restrict our progress towards international brotherhood? “The Mountain” symbolizes the un-inquisitive, the unadventurous and the un-ambitious spirit. “The Road Not Taken” symbolically deals with the choice problem.

Frost is not a Nature poet in the tradition of Wordsworth. He insists upon the boundaries between man and the forces of Nature. He sees no pervading spirit in the natural world and regards it as impersonal and unfeeling. He treats nature both as comfort and menace.

Frost shows a strong disinclination towards city life. He has written no poems on friendship. He has written love poems, but misunderstanding is a constant theme in them. His poetry has curious anti-social quality. Almost every poem in “North of Boston” deals with the theme of alienation. “Desert Places” describes a similar mood and situation. Many of his poems are about the sense and the feeling of loneliness not a peculiarly American dilemma but as a universal situation. Sometimes he approaches this problem in an optimistic manner as in “Our Hold on the Planet”.

A critic has listed the typical qualities of Frost’s poetry like Frost’s tenderness, sadness and humour; his seriousness and honesty; his sorrowful acceptance of things as they are without exaggeration or explanation; his many poems with real people, real speech, real thoughts and real emotions; subtlety and exactness and a classical under-statement and restraint.
In conclusion it may be pointed out that Frost has been described as a symbolist, a spiritual drifter, a home-spun philosopher, a lyricist, a moralist, a preacher and a farmer who writes verse.

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Frost's theme of isolation

 Frost's theme of isolation

One of the most striking themes of Frost is man’s isolation in the universe or man’s sense of alienation from his environment. There is in Frost’s poetry a curious anti-social quality, far from Whitman’s dear love of comrades. He has a strong disinclination towards city life which has gone beyond a dislike of the city life. For instance, he has written no poems of friendship. He has written love-poems but misunderstandings are a constant theme in them, produced by some deep solitariness, some unbreakable barrier between soul and soul.

A circumstance in Frost’s personal life too contributed to the theme of isolation. Frost’s sister, Jeanie, had become totally alienated from the world, unable to accept the coarseness and brutality of existence. Frost’s sadness in being unable to dissuade her from the view of things is similar to the plight of the husband in “Home Burial”. The young woman in this poem cannot reconcile herself to the death of her child and becomes totally alienated.

Frost in his poems isolates the individual. Poem after poem shows the speaker running off or living the life alone. He who flees goes to confront the vast enigma of space and the night.

The memorable female figures in his poems all show some kind of singularity. If loneliness may be stimulating for the male, for the female it is likely to be disastrous.

In “Acquainted with the Night”, the word “night” may be interpreted in several ways. But one convincing interpretation is Nature. Throughout the poem there are people – seen, heard, or known to be there – but there is no direct contact with Nature. Nature does not govern man’s affairs but proclaims the time. The writer here shows his realization and understanding of his predicament:

One luminary clock against the sky
Proclaimed the time was neither wrong nor right.
I have been one acquainted with the night.

This poem deserves comparison with “Desert Places” which too has loneliness or isolation as its theme. All animals have taken shelter in their lairs. The poet is oppressed by a feeling of loneliness:

And lonely as it is that loneliness
Will be more lonely ere it will be less.

The poet is not afraid of the empty spaces between the stars, stars on which there is no human race. Why should they scare him with their empty spaces, when the poet has his own “desert places” to scare him? The pathos of this poem is very touching:

I have it in me so much nearer home
To scare myself with my own desert places.

A poem called “The Fear” has the following concluding lines:

You understand that we have to be careful.
This is a very, very lonely place.

“Bereft”, too deals with this theme. “It portrays a bleak realization of absolute loneliness, a sudden, despairing sense of loss”. In this poem there is absolutely no relief from the loneliness. The poem moves in part of the same lines as “Desert Places”, from a scene of threatening images and desolation to still greater loneliness. Loneliness could not have been expressed more simply, more emphatically and more pathetically than in the concluding lines:

World I was in the house alone
Somehow must have gotten abroad,
Word I was in my life alone,
Word I had no one left but God.

The feeling of isolation in this poem lends poignancy to the scene, while the identification of hostility of Nature aggravates the feeling of isolation. The last line is not a cry of faith but an agonized scene of absolute mourning. The emotional emphasis is on “no one”.

Through Frost discusses the theme of alienation yet he does not approve it. It is true that he does not condemn it either. He portrays the barriers between man and man and to make dramatic projection of the theme of isolation. He dislikes isolation, but he sees its inevitability.

To the ordinary reader, such poems seem to imply a pessimistic view of human life. Frost regards the sense of isolation, not as a peculiarly American dilemma but as a universal situation. The poems having this theme are therefore truly realistic. Sometimes Frost approaches the problem of isolation in an optimistic manner as in “Our Hold on the Planet”.

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Frost's treatment of nature

Frost's treatment of nature

Robert Frost depicts the bright and the dark aspects, the benevolent and the hostile forces of Nature in his poems on realistic terms.

Critics have a difference of opinion over his designation of a poet of Nature. Alvarez says that:

“Frost is not a Nature poet”.

One point of view on which almost all the critics agree is Frost’s minute observation and accurate description of the different aspects of nature in his poems. Schneider says:

“The descriptive power of Mr. Frost is to me the most wonderful thing in his poetry. A snowfall, a spring thaw, a bending tree, a valley mist, a brook, these are brought into the experience of the reader”.

For illustration, these lines from “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” may be quoted:

“The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,
But I have promises to keep,”

These lines depict not only the beauty and the mystery of the snow filled woods which hold the poet almost spell-bound but also describe the helplessness of the poet who has no time because of his social commitments. Thus the beauty of Nature and obligations of human life are treated by Frost as two aspects of poet’s one whole experience in these lines.
Frost is primarily a realist who abstruse the things around him and in nature as they are and describes them as such. That is why nature changes its character from poem to poem in his poetry.

In “Two Tramps in Mud Time”, if on the one hand, he shows New England poised between cold and warmth, winter and spring, on the other hand, he does not miss to show the turmoil and storm brewing under the apparently beautiful calm of nature. Therefore, he interrupts his genial description of the April weather to warm:

“Be glad of water, but don’t forget
The lurking frost in the earth beneath
That will steal firth after the sun is set
And snow on the water its crystal teeth.”

Frost pastoral element is dominant in Frost’s poetry. That is why he is considered as a poet of pastures and plains, mountains and rivers, woods and gardens, groves and bowers, fruits and flowers, seeds and birds as he was a farmer. Hence, nature was his constant companion. But what is noticeable in his poetry is that even in the poems such as “Pastures”, “Birches”, “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”, “West Running Brook”, “After Apple Picking”, “An Old Man’s Winter Night” and “Mending Wall” it is the human factor which is predominant and nature is an integral part of the themes of the poems. For worries and disappointments in life make life miserable but the pet still clings to it because he loves the earth.

Frost unlike Wordsworth is not a nature mystic. He does not see any affinity between nature and man nor does he find any spirit or power pervading it. Nor does he find any healing power in it which can cure the ills of society and man. For him nature is alien to man.

Frost’s attitude to nature reflects the spirit of the present age whose attitude to nature, like all other things, is scientific and realistic. That is why he has not formulated any philosophy about nature. Nor do his poems display the rare exalted moments which are displayed in the poems of the romantic age, particularly in those if Wordsworth. Frost’s poems describe simply his daily and common experience.

The imagery of Frost’s poems is also drawn upon the objects of nature.

“Loaded with ice a sunny winter morning” (Birches)

“And life is too much like a pathless wood” (Birches)

“The world of hoary grass” (After Apple Picking)

“A leaping tongue of bloom” (The Tuft of Flower)

“His long scythe whispering to the ground” (The Tuft of Flower)

These are some of the images which have locked his poem with beauty and sense. Though Frost is philosophic and not didactic yet his poems usually convey the wisdom of his experience which may be termed as a moral.

Thus, the panorama of nature presented in Frost’s poems not only offers a feast of beauty to the view of the reader but also provides him awareness of life. His sarcastic qualities find full expression in the description of the scenes of nature. In the light of these views Frost may safely be considered as a poet who gave and entirely new concept of nature and is one of the great poets of nature.

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Frost sane realist not a pessimist

 Frost sane realist not a pessimist

Frost is a great artist and essentially a poet but not a philosopher – he is a philosopher poet. The writings of a poet are largely dictated by the rhythms of his moods. Expecting any systematic exposition of philosophy from a poet is undesirable and totally unwarranted. However, from repeated expression of certain views in poem after poem, one can extract certain basic concepts and thoughts of the poet.

Frost’s views about God, Nature and Man can be deduced from his poetry which reveal a large quantum of sanity and profundity. As Gibson puts that in Frost’s poetry, there is an undercurrent of ‘the clear stream of rich and ripe philosophy’.

Frost showed a philosophical bent of mind from the very beginning. But a philosophical anxiety, a social sadness becomes more obvious in his later poems. He does not have any philosophical system or set of beliefs. It is impossible to reduce Frost’s thinking to a diagrammatic accuracy. In this connection, Frost says:

We dance round in a ring and suppose
But the Secret sits in the middle and knows.

Frost does not manage to squeeze in among the ranks of great philosopher poets. Yet, the philosophy within his poetry calls our attention and cannot be dismissed as negligible or insignificant. He has clothed his philosophical thought in a naturally conventional style.

Frost’s ‘rich and ripe philosophy’ is obvious in everything he writes. The truths he seeks are innate in the heart of man and in common objects. But people forget and poetry, according to Frost, “makes you remember what you didn’t know you knew”. A poem provides an immediate experience which “begins in delight and ends in wisdom”. However, his persistent search for truths does not mean that Frost is a grim philosopher. His touch is always light.

With reference to any philosophical absolutes, Frost is a skeptic. He prefers the wisdom that is nourished by understanding, tolerance and observation. His value as a philosopher lies in the home-spun intelligence. There can be no better proof of Frost’s home-spun philosophy than the following lines:

Home is the place where, when you have to go there,
They have to take you in, (The Death of the Hired Man)

Earth’s the right place for love
I do not know where it’s likely to go better. (Birches)

We love the things we love for what they are. (Hyla Brook)

His poems provide ample wisdom of a prudential kind which should serve as effective guidelines to our everyday conduct. He is a classicist in his belief. He advocates self-reliance and integrity. He looks upon integrity as operating through a variety of choice rather than between evil and good.

Though there is no fixed line between wrong and right,
There are roughly zones whose laws must be obeyed.

Frost is basically a philosophic poet who often uses the pastoral mode as a vehicle for his inquiries into the nature and meaning of life. His irony, didacticism and lyricism, all serve this end. Yet, so completely are form and content united in his work that it is scarcely possible to remove the philosophical element in any poem without completely dislocating it.

Frost’s poetry incorporates his philosophy. Frost’s poetry is full of thoughts, ideas and vision of life. But he is not to be considered a philosopher. His philosophy is an integral part of his poetry. But one must also keep at the back of one’s mind that his philosophy is not essential for the appreciation of his poetry. Like Wordsworth and Yeats, Frost’s ideas have grown along with his verse.

To conclude, it is best to quote Lawrence Thompson: ‘this primary artistic achievement, which is an enviable one, in spite of shortcomings, rests on his blending of though and emotion and symbolic imagery within the confines of the lyric’.

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Post Hamlet-Ophelia relationship

Post Hamlet-Ophelia relationship

Shakespeare’s greatness and pre-eminence as a dramatist is universally recognized. It is said that “he was not of an age but of all times”. Shakespeare's characters reveal themselves by what they say and do on the stage. They tell us more by their speeches then by their actions.

Hamlet, the play and the man, seem to be presented as a puzzle. Dower Wilson regards this puzzle as greater even the puzzle of Hamlet’s procrastination in taking his revenge. There are many things in Hamlet which are capable of a large number of interpretations and Hamlet-Ophelia relationship is one of them. In fact, Hamlet is a play which imitates reality so closely, that the play retains the mystery of life and hints at its mysterious depth.

Hamlet loves Ophelia truly and sincerely. He probably fell in love with her when he was staying at Ellsinore before his father’s death. In his love letter he addressed her in the most idealized form. He writes:

“Doubt that the stars are fire,
Doubt that the sun doth move,
Doubt truth to be a liar,
But never doubt I love.”

Ophelia too tells Polonius that Hamlet had importuned her with love in honorable fashion and ‘had given countenance to his speech with almost all the vows of heaven’. Dowden has rightly observed:

“Laertes’ sister Ophelia is loved by Lord Hamlet.”

Ophelia never declares her love in so many words, yet we know Ophelia's heart is entirely given to Hamlet for she has sucked the honey of love musicked vows and that his loss of reason has made her of ladies most deject and wretched. Mrs. Jameson describing her character in her book “Characteristics of women” has observed:

“The love of Ophelia which she never once confesses is like a secret which we have stolen from her and which ought to die upon our hearts as upon her own.”

While both loved each other truly and sincerely then what is the cause of failure of their love? To a certain extent circumstances play an important role. Hamlet’s father dies suddenly and Hamlet returns to Denmark to mourn his father’s death. While he is still a mourner, his mother marries his uncle and it hurts him. Ghost’s revelation of truth makes him disgusted. Now he is no longer interested in man or woman. A clue to his change can be seen in the first soliloquy:

“O that this too too sullied flesh would melt
Thaw and resolve itself into a dew.”

This shows that Hamlet is now unhappy with the world.

Ophelia is another woman who does not have moral firmness. At this juncture when Hamlet needs moral strengths Ophelia’s brother and father warn her of the danger in her amorous contact with Hamlet. They accuse Hamlet roundly of weakness of character and tell that he might betray her. Polonius gives positive orders to repulse Hamlet’s advances. He not only stops her from meeting Hamlet but also advise her to return his letters. Polonius and Laertes are worldly minded men and Hamlet is out of favor with fortune and it is fatal to have any relation with him. Ophelia carries out these orders and Hamlet receives another shock. He goes into Ophelia’s closet and tries to find out id she is also as faithless and unreliable as his mother. He feels betrayed and is hurt.

In the nunnery scene, Ophelia begins by accusing him of infidelity. He asks her if she is honest. Hamlet and Ophelia live on two different lands and there is no communication and understating between them. Ophelia does not understand him and thinks that he is mad and helps her father and Claudius in the hope that Hamlet would regain his reason. Hamlet never shares his secret with Ophelia despite loving her and this he again admits in the last act.

“I loved Ophelia, 40000 brothers,
Could not with all their quantity of love
Make up my sum.”

But for the fulfillment of love and marriage it is now tragically too late.
Ophelia is a meek and frail person. She is too tender to cope with the volcanic world of Hamlet. She is caught in the vortex of circumstances which Hamlet is unable to control. She loses mental balance and dies. Had the circumstances been different she might have been the bride of Hamlet as Gertrude says:

“I hop’d that shouldst been my Hamlet’s wife.”

But in the tragic world of Hamlet there are many casualties caused by the corruption of evil and Ophelia is one of them. Life has its own way of destroying things and we can only feel sorry for them

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Jane Austen's contribution to English novel

 Jane Austen's contribution to English novel

An objective and impartial estimation of Jane Austen’s contribution to the development of the English novel involve comparisons which are, also, likely to undermine her self-imposed limitations as an artist.

Austen’s range is very narrow. The plots revolve around three or four families in the countryside, consisting mostly of a few typed characters. There is only one theme – the theme of love and marriage – repeated in every novel. Deep philosophy of life is conspicuously absent and there are no hidden meanings to be discovered. There are no adventures to thrill, no violent passions to ruffle, no sensations to tickle and tease. Yet she is one of our major novelists. Safely emerging through two centuries and severe criticism, today she enjoys secure reputation.

Austen’s first important achievement is to bring to the English novel dramatic plots. She has the genius of a great dramatist. Baker successfully verified the plot of “Pride and Prejudice”, in its various stages of development, to the pattern of a five-act play. The unity of purposes, the complete inter-dependence of the main plot and the sub-plots, the perfect association of the action and the characters, dramatic irony and short, engaging dialogues render her plots highly dramatic. To this may be added the objectivity of narration, the complete withdrawal of the creator from the creation, for she hardly speak in her own person to give a direct comment.

Jane Austen has given us a multitude of characters. All of them are commonplace such as we meet everybody.

“Yet they are al perfectly discriminated from each other as if they were the most eccentric of human beings.”

Remarkably, no two villains are alike, nor two fools for even the greatest novelists are guilty of repetition. However, her real achievement in characterization is the ironic exposition of the ‘follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies’ of human conduct. She excels in the depiction of the ridiculous and of the hiatus between a reality and an appearance, between a purpose and a pretence that amuses and entertains, but also perplexes and exasperates.

Another of her important preoccupations is the theme of self-education. Her protagonists are often self-deceived. They undergo a painful process of self-discovery but they have the humility and honesty to admit their earlier illusionment and the courage to give a new direction to their life.

Austen represents feminization of the English novels. She draws her men as they appear to women and not to men. Her Darcy and Bingley, Knightly and Frank Churchill are seen through the eyes of her women, Elizabeth, Jane and Emma. The men never appear alone; they are always in the company of women, engaged in such activities as women can participate in – balls, dinners, card sessions, or just walks. This accounts for the lack of masculinity in her novels. It imposes a serious limitation on her art as a novelist, but it need not be regretted; we praise it for its rarity.

The artistic excellence of Austen’s novels deserves high praise. The plots are contrived and executed with consummate skill. There are no digressions and no loose ends are left dangling. Among her characters, there are hardly any superfluous. The dialogues are natural, yet lively, they help in the development of plot as well as the evolution of character. Her style is balanced, even epigrammatic. Ruben A. Brower thinks that many pages of “Pride and Prejudice” can be read a sheer poetry of wit. Sir Walter Scott concedes that though her subjects are not often elegant and certainly never grand, they are finished up to Nature and with a precision. He further says:

“The young lady had a talent for describing the involvements, feelings and characters are ordinary life … but the exquisite touch which renders commonplace things and characters interesting from the worth of the depiction and the sentiment is denied to me.”

Jane Austen has often been called a pure novelist for her art is only for art’s sake and is a source of great aesthetic pleasure on account of its artistic exquisiteness. Besides, it is also the vehicle of her moral vision that being based on common sense is pretty sound. A. J. Wright comments:

“Working with materials extremely limited in themselves, she develops themes of the broadest significance; the novels go beyond social record, beneath the didactic, to moral concern, perplexity and commitment.”

At one level, her novels present an authentic record of the life of the upper middle classes in Southern England at the end of the eighteenth century, while at another level, her novels can be considered as broad allegories. “Pride and Prejudice” displays and illustrates the dangers of excessive Pride and overweening Prejudice. “Sense and Sensibility” vindicates Sense and exposes the dangers of Sensibility. Emma deals with self-deception. “Persuasions” describes the dangers of over-persuasion.

Her most important contribution to the English novels is her ironic world view. This view lies in the recognition of the fact that man is confronted with the choice of two things that are mutually exclusive. The two are equally attractive, equally desirable, but ironically, incompatible. Sense may be more desirable but Sensibility too is not without attraction or desirability and its claims. The irony is that the claims of “Sense and Sensibility” are conflicting.

Ironically, the theme of “Pride and Prejudice” is the contrast between Intricacy and Simplicity. Both the qualities have their own attractions and dangers in them. Darcy and Elizabeth are intricate and attractive but they are prone to the dangers that accompany such an intricacy. Jane and Bingley are simple, and they are free from such dangers but they are dull and lifeless. Perhaps one would like to be simple and intricate all at once, but that is not possible; which is the irony. Jane Austen projects this ironic world view practically in all her novels

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Keat's Sensuousness

Keat's Sensuousness



Keats is a mystic of the senses and not of thoughts as he sought to apprehend the ultimate truth of the universe through aesthetic sensations and not through philosophical thoughts.


Sensuousness is a quality in poetry which affects the senses i.e. hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting. Sensuous poetry does not present ideas and philosophical thoughts. It gives delight to senses, appeals to our eyes by presenting beautiful and coulourful word pictures to our ears by its metrical music and musical sounds, to our nose by arousing the sense of smell and so on.


Keats is the worshiper of beauty and peruses beauty everywhere; and it is his senses that first reveal to him the beauty of things. He writes poetry only out of what he feels upon his pulses.


Thus, it is his sense impressions that kindled his imagination which makes him realize the great principle that: 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty'


Keats loves nature for its own sake. He has a straightforward passion fro nature by giving his whole soul to the unalloyed enjoyment of its sensuous beauty.


Poetry originates from sense impressions and all poets are more or less sensuous. Sense impressions are the starting point of poetic process. It is what the poet sees and hears that excites his emotions and imagination. The emotional and imaginative reaction to sense impressions generate poetry. The poets give the impressions receive by their eyes only. Wordsworth's imagination is stirred by what he sees and hears in nature. Milton is no less sensitive to the beauty of nature, of the flowers in "Paradise Lost" in a sensuous manner. But Keats' poetry appeals to our sense of sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch and sense of hot and cold. He exclaims in one of his letters:


O for a life of sensation than of thoughts


He is a pure poet in sense of seeking not sensual but sensuous delight.


SENSE OF SIGHT: Keats is a painter of words. In a few words he presents a concrete and solid picture of sensuous beauty.


"Her hair was long, her foot was light
And her eyes were wild."


And in "Ode on Grecian Urn" again the sense of sight is active.


"O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
With forest branches and the trodden weed;"


SENSE OF HEARING: The music of nightingale produces pangs of pain in poet's heart.


"The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days, by emperor and clown:"


In "Ode on Grecian Urn" he says:


"Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;"


SENSE OF TOUCH: The opening lines of "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" describe extreme cold:


"The sedge is withered from the lake
And no birds sing."


SENSE OF TASTE: In "Ode to Nightingale", Keats describes different kinds of wine and the idea of their tastes in intoxication.


"O for a beaker full of the warm South
Full of the true the blushful Hippocrene,"


SENSE OF SMELL: In "Ode to Nightingale", the poet can't see the flowers in darkness. There is mingled perfume of many flowers.


"I cannot see what flowers are at my feet,
Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs,
But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet."


Perhaps the best example of Keats sensuousness is "Ode to Autumn". In this ode the season of autumn is described in sensuous terms in which all senses are called forth.


"Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness
Close bosom friend of the maturing sun;"


For Keats Autumn is the season of apples on mossed cottage tree, of fruits which are ripe to the core and of later flowers for bees. Thus autumn to Keats is full of pictures of delights of sense. There is the ripe fruit and ripe grains and also there is music that appeals to the ear.


The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft.


Keats is a poet of sensations. His thought is enclosed in sensuousness. In the epithets he uses are rich in sensuous quality - delicious face, melodious plot, sunburnt mirth, embalmed darkness and anguish moist. Not only are the sense perceptions of Keats are quick and alert but he has the rare gift of communicating these perceptions by concrete and sound imagery. As time passes Keats mind matured and he expresses an intellectual and spiritual passion. He begins to see not only their beauty but also in their truth which makes Keats the "inheritor of unfulfill'd renown".


Keats is more poet of sensuousness than a poet of contemplation. Sometimes he passes from sensuousness to sentiments. In his mature works like Odes or the Hyperion, the poet mixes sensuousness with sentiments, voluptuousness with vitality, aestheticism with intellectualism. However the nucleus of Keats' poetry is sensuousness. It is his senses which revealed him the beauty of things, the beauty of universe from the stars of the sky to the flowers of the wood.


Keats' pictorial senses are not vague or suggestive but made definite with a wealth of artistic detail. Every stanza, every line is replete with sensuous beauty. No other poet except Shakespeare could show such a mastery of language and felicity of sensuousness..

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Saussure and His Main Contributions

Saussure and His Main Contributions

was a Swiss linguist who occupies an important place in the history of linguistics and is generally considered the founder of modern linguistics. It was he who first of all emphasized the importance of viewing language as a living phenomenon. He was the founder of a “theoretic foundation to the newer trend in linguistics study," and European scholars have seldom failed to consider his views when dealing with any theoretical problem. Jonathan Culler (1976) says, "Ferdinand de Saussure is the father of modern linguistics, the man who reorganized the systematic study of language and language in such a way as to make possible the achievements of twentieth-century linguists. This alone would make him a Modern Master: master of a discipline which he made modern."


De Saussure’s contribution to modern linguistics was responsible for three key directions in the study of language. He distinguished between Synchrony and Diachrony, between langue and parole, between signified and signifier. He also contributed by describing the distinction bet6ween syntagmatic and paradigmatic, the theory of associative value. Saussure’s contributions to linguistics are given below:


First, he broke with the young grammarians by pointing the distinction between historical linguistics and the state of language at any point in time. He was determined to delimit and define the boundaries of languge study. To this end he began by distinguishing between historical linguistics and descriptive linguistics, or diachronic and synchronic analyses respectively. The distinction was one that comparative philologists had often confused, but for Saussure landing, subsequently for linguistics it was essential. Synchronic linguistics sees language as a living whole, existing as a "state" at a particular point in time. It is descriptive linguistics that concerns with the state of a language at any point in time, especially the present. According to Saussure, “Synchronic linguistics will be concerned with the logical and psychological relations that bind together co-existing terms and form a system in the collective mind of speakers.”


Diachronic linguistics is the study of language history and change. This was the type of work that characterized most of Saussure's predecessors because the crucial question about language, at least until the 19th century, revolved around discovering the origin of language. Diachronic linguistics deals with the evolution of a language through time, as a continually changing medium-a never-ending succession of language states. Thus we may wish to study the change from Old English to Middle English, or the way in which Shakespeare's style changed from youth to maturity: both would be examples of diachronic study. “Diachronic linguistics will study relations that bind together successive terms not perceived by the collective mind but substituted for each other without forming a system" (Saussure)


Saussure drew the inter-relationship of the two dimensions in the way:
C
A
B
D
Here AB is the synchronic "axis of simultaneities"; CD is the diachronic "axis of successions". AB is a language state at an arbitrarily chosen point in time on the line CD (at X); CD is the historical path the language has traveled, and the route, which it is going to continue traveling. This distinction is significant because synchronic analyses were either ignored or overlooked in the past, and most importantly, the distinction drew attention to the current structural properties of language as well as historical dimensions.


This led to de Saussure's second contribution; the distinction between language and parole. He envisaged language (human speech as a whole) to be composed of two aspects, which are called langue (the language system) and parole (the act of speaking). Langue was considered by Saussure to be the totality of a language, deducible from an examination of the memories of all the language users.


On the other hand, parole "comprises the actual manifestation of the system in speech and writing”. Parole denotes the actual speech act of the individual.


The distinction between langue and parole can be summed up as follows:


01. Langue is a language system shared by a community of speakers.
Parole is the in the individual realization of that system.
02. Langue is a social phenomenon
Parole is am individual phenomenon.
03. Langue is what potential
Parole is what is actual.
04. Langue is a static situation
Parole is a dynamic situation
05. Langue is concept.
Parole is the round image of that concept
06. Langue is a rule
Parole is behaviour.


The distinction between langue and parole also has important implications for other disciplines as well. In distinguishing them we are separating what is social from what is individual.


Saussure's third main theoretical contribution was to clarify the concept of a language system that had the most profound influence on subsequent scholarship. He was really interested in the larger and more abstract system of signs. De Saussure characterized signs as a relationship between "concept" and "sound" to use de Saussure's words signified and signifier. Saussure called this relationship of signified to signifier a linguistic sign. The sign, for him, is the basic unit of communication. The linguistic sign is constituted by the structural relationship between the concept (e.g., "house"---the signified) and the sound of the word "house" (signifier). A language is essentially composed of such structural relationships, and the study of language is the study of the system of signs that express ideas.


Another type of structural relationship in a language system presented by Saussure is syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationship.


Syntagmatic relationship is the combinatorial or again relationship. For example we can come tomorrow is a sentence because in this linear arrangement of words. 'we' is correlated with can, 'can' with come and so on. This relationship is restricted to certain orders. "In the syntagm a term acquires its value because it stands in opposition to everything that precedes or follows or to both” (saussure 1959:123)


The paradigmatic relationships are contrastive or choice relationships. Words that have something in common are associated in the memory ,resulting in groups marked by diverse relations , for example the English word learning is unconsciously call to mind a host of other words-study ,knowledge discipline etc. All these words are related in same way. This kind of relationship is called associative relationship.


We can come tomorrow
We may go next
She will ask soon


According to Saussure the value of each word is determined by its opposition to other words. Values in writing function only through reciprocal opposition within a fixed system which borists of a set number of letters. It is this interdependence among the values of words which transform then all into a uniform language system, and that which pertains to the context or words, retains to their form as well.


The contribution Saussure had on language was revolutionary. His work had a profound influence on many aspects of linguistics. Lastly the following statement from Benevensite will reflect his contribution: "a forerunner in doctrines which in the post fifty years have transformed the theory of language, he has opened us unforgettable vistas on the highest and mysterious faculty of man… he has contributed to the advent of formal thought in the sciences of society and culture and to the founding of a general semiology". There is not a single general theory which doesn't mention him name.

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